Art, Culture & Society

Tribes and Social Structure: Gaddi, Gujjar, Kinnaura, Lahaula, Pangwal, and Swangla Tribes; Their Practices and Customs.

The rich tribal culture and intricate social fabric of Himachal Pradesh represent one of the most fascinating aspects of the state. Due to rugged geographical terrains and isolated alpine valleys, these tribes have kept their centuries-old customs, unique marital systems, and distinct social rituals vibrantly alive.

1. Gaddi Tribe

• Region: They primarily inhabit the Bharmour region of Chamba district (affectionately called 'Gaderan') and the sub-alpine foothills of the Dhauladhar range in Kangra.
• Origin & Society: Gaddis trace their lineage back to Khatris, Rajputs, or Brahmins, and are devout followers of Lord Shiva. By nature, they are semi-nomadic pastoralists who practice transhumance (seasonal migration of livestock between valleys and high pastures).
• Traditional Attire: The traditional dress for men consists of a 'Chola' (a long, loose woollen coat) secured at the waist with a 'Dora' (a heavy, long black hand-woven rope). The Dora serves multiple purposes, such as a utility pocket or a sturdy rope during herding.
• Marriage Customs:
• Dan-Pun: The highly respected and traditional form of arranged marriage.
• Batta-Satta: A system of marriage by exchange, where a girl from one family is married to a boy of another family, and in return, a girl from the second family is wedded to a boy from the first family.
• Jhindfook: A form of love marriage performed by eloping couples in the forest, solemnized by setting bushes on fire and circumambulating (pheras) around it.

2. Gujjar Tribe

• Region: Gujjars are spread across various districts of Himachal Pradesh, particularly Chamba, Mandi, Solan, Sirmaur, and Bilaspur.
• Religion & Society: The community is divided into two distinct religious segments—Hindu Gujjars (who are mostly settled agriculturists) and Muslim Gujjars (who are semi-nomadic pastoralists). The pastoralist Gujjars primarily herd buffaloes and sustain themselves through the dairy trade.
• Lifestyle: During summers, Muslim Gujjars migrate with their makeshift shelters (Deris) to high alpine pastures, returning to the lower foothills of Punjab or Himachal during winters. Their lifestyle is entirely dependent on their livestock.

3. Kinnaura or Kinnar Tribe

• Region: This tribe primarily inhabits the Kinnaur district. They find historical mentions in ancient Indian texts like the Mahabharata and Kalidas's literary works, where they are described as 'Kinnars' or 'Ashvamukha' (horse-faced beings).
• Social Structure: Their society displays a beautiful synthesis of Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism. The community is traditionally divided into two main categories—Khasiya (the Rajput agriculturalists) and the Chamang/Domang (the artisan classes).
• Marriage & Family Systems:
• Historically, Kinnaur is well-known for practicing Polyandry (fraternal polyandry, locally termed Pandav marriage), where all brothers in a family share a single wife. This custom was primarily sustained to prevent the fragmentation of small agricultural landholdings.
• Jane-Kang: The local name for a systematically arranged traditional marriage.
• Damchalshish: A distinct form of marriage by capture or mutual elopement.
• Local Liquor: A local alcoholic brew made from distilled grapes or apples, known as 'Ghanti' or 'Chhang', plays an obligatory role in their religious offerings and social festivities.

4. Lahaula Tribe

• Region: This tribal group resides primarily in the Lahaul Valley (Lahaul-Spiti district).
• Religion & Culture: The Lahaula community is deeply influenced by Tibetan culture and Buddhist practices. The society is structured around prominent clans such as Gahar, Swangla, and Bhot. Their linguistic landscape features Bhoti alongside local localized dialects.
• Marriage & Divorce Rituals:
• Fraternal polyandry was historically prevalent within this community as well.
• Kuanchi Byah: A localized form of marriage involving the consensual elopement of the bride.
• Kupa Chocha: A highly unique ritual of divorce practiced in Lahaul. In the presence of village elders, the husband and wife hold opposite ends of a woollen thread with their little fingers and break it. The snapping of the thread formally symbolizes the dissolution of the marriage.

5. Pangwal Tribe

• Region: This tribe inhabits the highly rugged, snow-bound, and breathtakingly beautiful Pangi Valley of Chamba district.
• Origin: Historical accounts suggest that during medieval foreign invasions on the plains or the Chamba mainland, people migrated to this deeply isolated valley for refuge or were sent there as a form of state exile by rulers.
• Social Customs: The Pangwal society is tightly bound by clan structures, observing unique kinship rituals such as 'Peeth-Chuki' (rituals centered around carrying burdens or symbolic obligations on the back).
• Marriage Customs:
• Pind Ri Shaadi / Dares: The customary arranged marriage.
• Topi Lana: A simplified widow remarriage ritual. If a man wishes to marry a widow, he simply places a traditional cap (Topi) on her head in public, which legally and socially solemnizes their union.
• Jajhrada: Another variant of mutual remarriage or social union practiced across the Pangi region.

6. Swangla Tribe

• Region: A distinct Hindu tribe residing in the Pattan Valley of Lahaul-Spiti district, primarily settled along the fertile banks of the Chandrabhaga River.
• Language & Hierarchy: They speak 'Manchat', a unique language that blends elements of Tibetan and Indo-Aryan linguistic families. The social hierarchy places Rajput and Brahmin Swanglas at the apex.
• Marriage Customs:
• Rusta te Byah: The local term for love marriage by elopement, where the couple marries with mutual consent away from home.
• Kua Byah: An ancient, now obsolete, form of marriage by capture.
• The formal divorce ritual among Swanglas is termed 'Tsud-Thwagchi', which closely mirrors the thread-snapping tradition of the neighboring Lahaulas.

💡 Master Revision Matrix

Tribe	Primary Region	Traditional Dress / Language	Famous Marriage Practices	Key Social Custom / Fact
Gaddi	Bharmour (Chamba), Kangra	Chola & Dora (Woollen coat & rope waist-belt)	Batta-Satta (Exchange), Jhindfook (Elopement via bush-fire).	Devout followers of Lord Shiva; practice seasonal pastoral migration.
Gujjar	Chamba, Mandi, Sirmaur, etc.	-	-	Split into settled Hindu farmers and nomadic Muslim pastoralists.
Kinnaura	Kinnaur	Ghanti (Distilled grape/apple liquor)	Jane-Kang (Arranged), Damchalshish (Capture).	Historically famous for Fraternal Polyandry (Pandav marriage).
Lahaula	Lahaul Valley	Deeply influenced by Bhoti culture	Kuanchi Byah (Elopement)	'Kupa Chocha' – Unique divorce ritual by snapping a woollen thread.
Pangwal	Pangi Valley (Chamba)	-	Pind Ri Shaadi, Topi Lana (Widow remarriage).	Isolated valley; historically settled by refugees and exiles.
Swangla	Pattan Valley (Lahaul)	Manchat Language	Rusta te Byah (Love marriage), Kua Byah.	Hindu inhabitants of Lahaul; observe 'Tsud-Thwagchi' divorce.

Architecture and Paintings: Temple Architectural Styles (Pagoda, Shikhara, Pent-Roof); Kangra, Guler, and Bashohli Paintings (Miniature Paintings).

The temple architecture and traditional school of paintings in Himachal Pradesh represent a brilliant confluence of historical richness, religious devotion, and natural aesthetics. While the state's challenging geographical terrains led to the evolution of highly distinct temple construction styles, the miniature paintings that flourished under the patronage of various hill states earned global acclaim.

1: Temple Architecture Styles

Depending on geographical location and external cultural influences, several unique temple architectural styles can be seen across Himachal Pradesh. The three most prominent ones include:

1. Pagoda Style

• Core Characteristics: The roofs of these temples are layered in successive interlocking tiers, resembling a pyramid. This style was heavily influenced by Nepalese and Tibetan architectural designs. The roofs decrease in scale as they rise toward the top and are traditionally crafted using fine wood and stone slates.
• Major Temples:
• Hidimba Devi Temple (Manali, Kullu): This is the most famous example of Pagoda architecture in Himachal. It was constructed in 1553 CE by King Bahadur Singh of Kullu. It features a four-tiered Pagoda roof.
• Prashar Rishi Temple (Mandi): Situated on the bank of the pristine Prashar Lake, this beautiful temple is built in a three-tiered Pagoda style. It was commissioned by King Ban Sen of Mandi in the 14th century.
• Tripura Sundari Temple (Naggar, Kullu) and Adi Brahma Temple (Khokhan, Kullu).

2. Shikhara Style

• Core Characteristics: This is a localized version of the classic North Indian Nagara Style. These temples feature a high, curvilinear, solid stone tower (spire or shikhara) built over the sanctum sanctorum, topped by a circular ribbed stone (amalka) and a sacred pot (kalash). These structures are built entirely of intricately carved stones without wood.
• Major Temples:
• Masrur Rock-Cut Temple (Kangra): Famously revered as the "Ellora of Himachal". This is a monolithic complex of 15 temples carved out of a single massive rock sandstone structure during the 8th century, credited to the era of King Lalitaditya of Kashmir. It is a stunning example of Shikhara style dedicated to Thakurdwara (deities Ram, Lakshman, and Sita).
• Baijnath Temple (Kangra): Dedicated to Lord Shiva, this temple is built in pure, classical Shikhara style. It was constructed in 1204 CE by two local merchants, Ahuka and Manyuka.
• Laxmi Narayan Temple Complex (Chamba): A magnificent cluster of 6 stone temples built by King Sahil Varman of Chamba in the 10th century.
• Manimahesh Temple (Bharmour) and Visheshwar Mahadev Temple (Bajaura, Kullu).

3. Pent-Roof Style

• Core Characteristics: This is recognized as the most ancient and indigenous architectural style of Himachal Pradesh. The temples feature simple slanting or sloping roofs (resembling typical mountain houses) designed specifically to withstand heavy winter snowfall and rain. They are built using alternating layers of stone masonry and timber beams.
• Major Temples:
• Lakshana Devi Temple (Bharmour, Chamba): Built by King Meru Varman in the 7th century, this temple is the oldest surviving example of wooden pent-roof architecture, boasting unparalleled classical wood carvings.
• Shakti Devi Temple (Chhatradi, Chamba): Another masterpiece from the 7th century, crafted by King Meru Varman's master artisan, 'Guga'.
• Hatkoti Mata Temple (Shimla): Situated along the banks of the Pabbar River, this temple is highly celebrated for its distinctive slanting pent-roof design.
• Bijli Mahadev Temple (Kullu).

2: Pahari Miniature Paintings

Between the 17th and 19th centuries, a distinct school of art developed across the various princely hill states of Himachal Pradesh, collectively known as 'Pahari School of Painting'. Characterized by its delicate brushwork and rich symbolism, its core themes revolve around the divine love of Radha-Krishna, natural landscapes, and classical texts like the Gita Govinda and Ramayana.

1. Bashohli Painting – The Oldest School

• Core Characteristics: This is the most ancient and foundational school of Pahari painting. It is easily identified by its use of vibrant, bold primary colors (deep yellow, rich red, and blues), distinct facial profiles with prominent eyes, and an extraordinary technique of utilizing tiny fragments of iridescent beetle wings to simulate luxury jewelry in paintings. It reflects an intense emotional vitality.
• Patrons: This style reached its absolute zenith under the patronage of King Kirpal Pal in the late 17th century. The most celebrated illustrated manuscript of this school is Bhanudatta’s 'Rasamanjari'.

2. Guler Painting – The Cradle of Kangra Art

• Core Characteristics: This school introduced greater naturalism, fluidity, and soft refinement compared to the bold strokes of Bashohli. The delicacy of line-work and graceful color palettes served as the transitional phase and is rightly considered the 'mother' or precursor to the famous Kangra style.
• Patrons & Artists: King Govardhan Chand (18th century) was a monumental patron of this school. His court welcomed two brilliant Kashmiri-origin artist brothers—Nainsukh and Manaku—who transformed the destiny of Pahari art. Nainsukh’s fine lines and lifelike portraits became the backbone of this style.

3. Kangra Painting – The Golden Age of Art

• Core Characteristics: This is the most famous and refined peak of the Pahari painting tradition. When the Guler style migrated to the Kangra court, it blossomed fully. It is world-renowned for its exquisite portrayal of feminine grace (slender fingers, long almond eyes, flowing drapery), serene natural backdrops (blooming trees, rivers), and a soft, delicate color palette. The primary thematic focus remained the divine romance of Radha and Krishna.
• Patrons: The great Katoch dynasty ruler, Raja Sansar Chand, was the ultimate visionary patron of this school. His reign during the late 18th and early 19th centuries is celebrated as the 'Golden Age' of Kangra painting.
• Key Exam Fact: Kangra paintings have been granted the prestigious Geographical Indication (GI Tag) status internationally, legally preserving its unique regional heritage.
  

💡 Master Revision Matrices - Temple Architecture

Style	Architectural Profile	Iconic Example	District	Builder / Period
Pagoda	Layered, pyramid-like tiered roofs made of wood/slate.	Hidimba Devi Temple Prashar Rishi Temple	Manali (Kullu) Mandi	Raja Bahadur Singh (1553) Raja Ban Sen (14th C.)
Shikhara	Nagara form; high curvilinear carved stone spire.	Masrur Rock-Cut Baijnath Temple	Kangra Kangra	King Lalitaditya Era (8th C.) Merchants Ahuka & Manyuka (1204)
Pent-Roof	Oldest indigenous style; slanting wooden/stone roofs.	Lakshana Devi Hatkoti Temple	Bharmour (Chamba) Shimla	Raja Meru Varman (7th C.) Ancient Hill Chiefs

Pahari Paintings

Painting School	Defining Characteristic	Primary Royal Patron	Key Masterpiece / Master Artists
Bashohli	Oldest school; bold primary colors; uses iridescent beetle wings for jewels.	Raja Kirpal Pal	Illustration of Bhanudatta's Rasamanjari.
Guler	Soft natural lines; serves as the birth-cradle of the Kangra style.	Raja Govardhan Chand	Master painters Nainsukh and Manaku.
Kangra	Supreme feminine grace; delicate brushwork; Radha-Krishna theme.	Raja Sansar Chand (Golden Age)	Inscriptions of Jayadeva's Gita Govinda; carries a global GI Tag.

Fairs, Festivals, and Folk Dances: Kullu Dussehra, Mandi Shivratri, Lavi Fair, Minjar Fair; Nati, Kayang, Jatru Folk Dances.

The fairs, festivals, and folk dances of Himachal Pradesh are the ultimate reflections of its vibrant cultural heritage, rich oral traditions, and communal harmony. Due to the state's steep mountain barriers and isolated valleys, nearly every district has preserved its own unique identity through its local folklore.

1: Major Fairs and Festivals of Himachal Pradesh

The fairs of Himachal Pradesh are officially classified into International, National, and State-level categories based on their historical, commercial, and cultural scale.

1. Kullu Dussehra – International Fair

• History & Origin: This is a world-renowned International Fair celebrated at the Dhalpur Ground in Kullu. Its origins date back to 1651 CE during the reign of King Jagat Singh of Kullu, who brought a sacred idol of Lord Raghunath from Ayodhya and installed it as the supreme deity of the valley.
• Unique Features: While Dussehra across India culminates on Vijayadashami with the burning of effigies, Kullu Dussehra begins on the day of Vijayadashami and continues for 7 days. No effigies of Ravana, Kumbhakarna, or Meghanada are burned here. Instead, hundreds of local hill deities (such as Goddess Hidimba) assemble in their beautifully decorated wooden palanquins to pay obeisance to Lord Raghunath.

2. Mandi Shivratri – International Fair

• History & Origin: Held annually at the Paddal Ground in Mandi, this International Fair holds vast spiritual value. Culturally, its foundation traces back to 1527 CE when King Ajbar Sen founded the town of Mandi. However, it was transformed into a grand state-sponsored cultural celebration in 1648 CE by King Suraj Sen, who formally surrendered his kingdom to the presiding deity, Lord 'Madho Rai' (an incarnation of Krishna).
• Unique Features: Commencing the day after Maha Shivratri, this week-long festival witnesses the arrival of over 200 village deities from remote mountain valleys. They participate in the grand, royal ceremonial procession known as the Jaleb of Madho Rai, alongside a visit to the ancient Baba Bhootnath Temple.

3. Lavi Fair (Rampur, Shimla) – International Trade Fair

• History & Origin: This is the oldest commercial trade fair in Himachal Pradesh, held every November on the banks of the Satluj River in Rampur Bushahr, Shimla. It began during the reign of Raja Kehari Singh as a commemorative celebration of a historic trade treaty signed between the Kingdom of Bushahr and Tibet.
• Unique Features: For centuries, it has served as a cross-border commercial hub for traders from Tibet, Kinnaur, and Lahaul. The fair is highly famous for the trade of Chammurthi horses (a rare breed adapted to high altitudes), fine 'Pashmina' wool, dry fruits, and heavy local woollen blankets known as Patti.

4. Minjar Fair (Chamba) – International Fair

• History & Origin: This highly celebrated International Fair takes place every August at the historic, sprawling Chaugan Ground in Chamba. It was initiated in 935 CE by King Sahil Varman to commemorate his military victory over the ruler of Trigarta (Kangra) and to mark the changing course of the Ravi River.
• Unique Features: The literal meaning of 'Minjar' is Maize Blossom. During this fair, locals pin Minjars (tassels made of silk threads, paddy stalks, and golden leaves) onto their traditional dresses. On the final day of the fair, a spectacular royal procession marches to the banks of the Ravi River, where the Minjars are ritually immersed. The festival stands as a great symbol of communal harmony, traditionally inaugurated by the local Mirza family offering the first Minjar to Lord Raghunath.

2: Major Folk Dances of Himachal Pradesh

The folk dances of Himachal are best understood through their distinct regional choreography and rhythmic patterns:

1. Nati – Folk Dance of the Mid and Lower Hills

• Region: This is the most popular, inclusive community folk dance performed across Kullu, Shimla, Mandi, Sirmaur, and Chamba.
• Unique Features: Nati begins with a slow, graceful tempo (Vilambit) and gradually shifts into a fast, energetic rhythm (Drut). It is performed by men and women holding hands or interlocking arms at the waist to form massive synchronized human chains moving in circular loops. The dance is accompanied by traditional live instruments like the Dhol, Nagara, Shehnai, and Karnal (long brass trumpets).
• World Record: The 'Kulluvi Nati' performed during the Kullu Dussehra festival was officially inscribed in the Guinness Book of World Records in 2015 as the largest folk dance in the world. It featured over 10,000 women dancing simultaneously in identical, colorful traditional dresses called Pattu.

2. Kayang – Tribal Dance of Kinnaur

• Region: A foundational and highly traditional folk dance belonging exclusively to the Kinnaur district.
• Unique Features: In this dance, men and women form a large semi-circular or straight chain. The dancers interlock their hands behind each other's waists, mimicking the pattern of a woven garland. Kayang has several specialized sub-variants, such as Bakayang (performed predominantly by women) and Chos Kayang.

3. Jatru (or Jatar Folk Dance)

• Region: This religious dance is performed during tribal festivals or pilgrimages known as Jatar across Kinnaur, Lahaul-Spiti, and the tribal belts of Chamba (Bharmour and Pangi).
• Unique Features: It is a pure devotional and community dance performed directly in front of the palanquins of local clan deities. Dancers sway rhythmically to the beat of heavy traditional drums and bronze plates (Thali), chanting praises to local protective gods as the holy processions move through villages.

💡 Master Revision Matrices - Fairs & Festivals

International Fair	Venue (Ground)	Peak Month	Royal Founder / Ruler	Primary Commercial / Cultural Feature
Kullu Dussehra	Dhalpur Ground, Kullu	October	Raja Jagat Singh (1651 CE)	Begins on Vijayadashami; spans 7 days; no effigy burning; Lord Raghunath is the chief deity.
Mandi Shivratri	Paddal Ground, Mandi	March	Raja Ajbar Sen / Raja Suraj Sen	Assembly of over 200 hill deities; grand Jaleb (procession) of Lord Madho Rai.
Lavi Fair	Rampur, Shimla	November	Raja Kehari Singh (Bushahr)	Oldest commercial trade fair in HP; main hub for Chammurthi horses and Pashmina wool.
Minjar Fair	Chaugan Ground, Chamba	August	Raja Sahil Varman (935 CE)	Immersion of silk maize blossoms (Minjar) in the Ravi River; symbol of communal harmony.

 

Folk Dances

Folk Dance	Primary Districts	Core Instruments Used	Key Examination Fact / Cultural Value
Nati	Kullu, Shimla, Sirmaur, Mandi	Dhol, Nagara, Shehnai, Karnal	Inscribed in the Guinness Book of World Records (2015); most popular community chain dance of HP.
Kayang	Kinnaur	Hulki, Local Dhol	Performed in a garland/chain formation (Bakayang is its major sub-variant).
Jatru	Kinnaur, Chamba, Lahaul	Tribal Drums, Bronze Plates (Thali)	Devotional invocation dance performed during holy village pilgrimages (Jatars) in front of local gods.

Dialects and Script: Various Dialects of the Pahari Language and the History of the 'Takri' Script.

The linguistic diversity and ancient scripts of Himachal Pradesh form a vital pillar of the state's distinct cultural identity. Due to steep mountain barriers and geographic isolation, the spoken dialects change gracefully from one valley to the next.

1: Pahari Language and Its Various Dialects

The indigenous language of the state is broadly classified as 'Western Pahari'. The eminent linguist Sir George Grierson, in his monumental work The Linguistic Survey of India, formally grouped the native speeches of Himachal Pradesh under this Western Pahari linguistic branch.

The major dialects of Himachal can be geographically categorized into three primary divisions:

1. North-Western Group

• Chambeali: Spoken primarily in Chamba town and its immediate surroundings. It has one of the oldest written traditions among the hill dialects.
• Bharmouri or Gaddi: Spoken by the Gaddi tribe in the Bharmour (Gaderan) region of Chamba.
• Pangwali: A highly localized dialect spoken in the deeply isolated Pangi Valley of Chamba.
• Churahi: Prevalent in the Churah tehsil of Chamba and its adjoining borders.

2. Central-Pahari Group

• Kangri: Spoken across a vast territory comprising Kangra, Hamirpur, and Una districts. It shows a noticeable linguistic influence of Punjabi.
• Mandyali: The principal speech of the Mandi district, with localized sub-dialects such as Sarkaghati and Suketi.
• Kulluvi: Spoken throughout the Kullu Valley. It features three distinct variants: Outer Kulluvi, Inner Kulluvi, and Sainji.
• Bilaspuri or Kehluri: Spoken in the Bilaspur district (the territorial extent of the ancient princely state of Kehlur).

3. South-Eastern and Tribal Group

• Kyonthali: Spoken in Shimla city and the territories of the erstwhile Kyonthal princely state. Historically, it was revered as the standard, prestigious speech variant of the Shimla hills.
• Sirmauri: Spoken in the Sirmaur district, split into two prominent variants: Dharti (spoken in the plains) and Giripari (spoken in the trans-Giri mountain tracts).
• Manchat and Bhoti: The primary tribal speeches of Lahaul-Spiti. Manchat is predominantly spoken in the Pattan Valley by the Swangla tribe, while Bhoti is dominant in the Buddhist-majority pockets.
• Kinnauri or Homskad: The principal tongue of the Kinnaur district, heavily influenced by the Tibeto-Burman language family.

2: History of the 'Takri' Script

The 'Takri' (also spelled Tankari) script is the ancient, historical writing system of Himachal Pradesh. While the modern computer era and the adoption of Devnagari have made it endangered, its historical value remains unparalleled.

• Origin: The Takri script evolved directly from the Sharada Script, which was the dominant ancient writing system of Kashmir and North-Western India. Sharada eventually branched into Takri, Dogri, and Gurmukhi scripts.
• Etymology: It is widely believed that the name 'Takri' is derived from the word 'Tank' or 'Thakur', relating to the ruling, aristocratic, or mercantile classes of Northern India.
• Historical Applications:
• Royal and Official Records: The royal decrees, copper plates (Tamrapatras), land revenue records, and official genealogies (Vanshavalis) of nearly all major hill states—including Chamba, Kangra, Mandi, Kullu, and Suket—were meticulously recorded in the Takri script.
• Copper Plates of Chamba: The rulers of the Chamba state made the most extensive and systematic official use of Takri to write their state language, Chambeali.
• Mercantile Ledger Books: Local traders and moneylenders across the hills utilized variants of this script (often termed Lande or Mahajani) to maintain confidential business ledgers and financial loan records.
• Present Status: To safeguard this priceless epigraphic heritage from extinction, the Department of Language and Culture of Himachal Pradesh conducts training workshops and active preservation of ancient Takri manuscripts across state archives.

💡 Master Revision Matrix

Dialect / Script	Primary Region (District)	Language Family / Root Source	Core Examination Fact / Value
Kangri	Kangra, Hamirpur, Una	Western Pahari (Punjabi influence)	Spoken across the largest geographical and population base in the state.
Kehluri (Bilaspuri)	Bilaspur	Western Pahari	The historical dialect of the ancient Kehlur princely state.
Kyonthali	Shimla	Western Pahari	Historically treated as the standard linguistic benchmark for the Shimla hills.
Manchat	Lahaul (Pattan Valley)	Tibeto-Burman influence	The primary dialect belonging to the Swangla tribe.
Kinnauri (Homskad)	Kinnaur	Tibeto-Burman family	The indigenous language of the absolute majority in Kinnaur.
Takri Script	Entire Himachal (mainly Chamba/Kangra)	Derived from Sharada Script	The official court script of the hill states; widely seen on historical copper plates and land records.